Corporate Irresponsibility and Corporate Social Responsibility: Competing Realities

Social Responsibility Journal Emerald Article: Corporate irresponsibility and corporate social responsibility: competing realities Brian Jones, Ryan Bowd, Ralph Tench Article information: To cite this document: Brian Jones, Ryan Bowd, Ralph Tench, (2009),†Corporate irresponsibility and corporate social responsibility: competing realities†, Social Responsibility Journal, Vol. 5 Iss: 3 pp. 300 – 310 Permanent link to this document: http://dx. doi. org/10. 108/17471110910977249 Downloaded on: 14-10-2012 References: This document contains references to 45 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 3 other documents To copy this document: [email  protected] com Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by UNIVERSITY OF BRIGHTON For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. 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The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. *Related content and download information correct at time of download.Corporate irresponsibility and corporate social responsibility: competing realities Brian Jones, Ryan Bowd and Ralph Tench Brian Jones is a Senior Lecturer, Ryan Bowd is a Senior Lecturer and Ralph Tench is Professor in Communications Edu cation, all based at Leeds Business School, Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, UK. Abstract Purpose – Building on the work of Carroll this article attempts to unravel, explore and explain corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a theoretical construct that has implications and consequences for corporate governance in particular, and more generally for the economy, business and society.It aims to extend Carroll’s work on de? nitional constructs by re-examining some of the theoretical frameworks that underpin, inform and guide CSR. Design/methodology/approach – Carroll identi? ed different levels, or a pyramid, of CSR and these are outlined and the advantages and disadvantages of a pyramid, levels-based approach discussed. The main contributions of this article lies is in its exploration of corporate social irresponsibility (CSI) as a concept in contrast to CSR.Bowd, Jones and Tench’s CSI-CSR model is described, explained, analysed and used as a concept ual tool to make the theoretical move from a pyramid or level-based approach to a more dynamic framework of analysis. Findings – The proposition that CSI is better suited to a shareholder business model and CSR sits more comfortably with a stakeholder business model is examined. It is contested that people often wrongly equate CSR with irresponsible corporate actions. The CSI-CSR model establishes a theoretical framework around which grounded empirical research can be undertaken, applied and on which it can be reported.Research limitations/implications – This is a new area of research that addresses a gap in the literature and puts forward innovative theoretical models. Discussing the concept of irresponsibility makes for an interesting theoretical move. It questions the idea that corporations and business per se are always or necessarily socially responsible. Originality/value – In looking at and developing existing theoretical models, concepts and frameworks a nd exploring their merits, shortcomings and limitations, the article will be of interest and relevance to the business and academic communities.If there is such a thing as CSR then the implication is that there is such a thing as CSI and it is on this issue that this article seeks to promote and stimulate discussion. Keywords Corporate social responsibility, Business ethics Paper type Research paper Introduction Corporations, their activities and governance have long been of interest to management and social scientists (see for example, Sampson, 1983). As it has gained a higher pro? le on the political, economic and business agendas in recent years (see for example, www. csr. gov. k; Commission of the European Communities, 2001, 2002), corporate social responsibility (CSR) has received increased attention from academics (see Whetten et al. , 2002; Arpan, 2005; Evuleocha, 2005; Riese, 2007; Birch, 2008). Corporate governance can be de? ned in a narrow and a broad way. For those who d e? ne it narrowly corporate governance is largely concerned with board level management issues. Reporting on the situation in the UK the Committee on the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance (1992, p. 15) described the term as ‘‘the system by which companies are directed and controlled’’.Such a narrow de? nition, adopting and advocating as it does a top The authors would like to thank David Crowther and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments in developing this paper. PAGE 300 j SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL j VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009, pp. 300-310, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1747-1117 DOI 10. 1108/17471110910977249 down approach to management, serves to demonstrate by example the inherent weaknesses of a command and control managerial style. Adopting both a bottom up and top down approach to management can better facilitate progress in regards to CSR.Corporate governance is at least in part about managerial compliance with legal requi rements surrounding CSR. Accepting the above, a more broad based de? nition might suggest that corporate governance permeates every level of the organisation, its activities and actual day-to-day operational workings. CSR is not con? ned to management but affects the whole organisation and its stakeholders (for a discussion of the stakeholder model of the corporation please see Donaldson and Preston, 1995; Cornelissen, 2004). This article adopts a broad-based de? nition of corporate governance. ‘Corporate citizenship’’ is a term commonly used in the same debates. There is lack of agreement on a common universal standardised de? nition of CSR and as a result there is confusion and overlap in the plethora of terms used (see Nielsen and Thomsen, 2007, p. 25) This article helps de? ne elements of CSR, thus aids understanding of the term and in so doing can better inform strategies for communication (Demetrious, 2008). CSR and corporate governance and citizenship are increasingly debated academic issues (see, for example, Schleifer and Vishny (1997); www. csr. gov. uk).Much of the emphasis has been placed upon businesses and business people to act in a more socially responsible manner and to acknowledge that shareholders are only one of a number of business stakeholders (Letza et al. , 2004). New and innovative ways to address and deal with issues emerging from the CSR and corporate governance agendas are increasingly being sought. This article stresses the difference between corporate social irresponsibility (CSI) and CSR and contests that the dualistic (or CSI-CSR bi-polar) model allows for greater clarity and understanding of the concepts that constitute and de? ne these terms.It is suggested that CSI is a term better suited to describing the workings of the ‘‘old’’ shareholder business model (Friedman, 1962) and that CSR is more applicable to the workings of the new and emerging stakeholder business model (Freeman, 1984). The CSI-CSR model allows for discussion and positioning of issues around CSR. Communication about issues of social responsibility (Demetrious, 2008) vary according to whether it is irresponsible or responsible corporate action being reported. A range of internal and external variables (see Figure 1), for example new technology, impact on businesses, what they do and how they perform.Such issues or variables may contain differing degrees of responsible and irresponsible actions and activities. On one issue a corporation might have exemplary behavior but on another it may perform poorly and need corrective action; for example, a business may have good policies, practices and procedures with regards to issues of diversity and equal opportunities but may be weak in terms of its commitment to Figure 1 CSI-CSR dichotomous model VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL PAGE 301 j j addressing pollution and environmental concerns. The ways in which CSI and CSR issues are commu nicated differ.Quite simply responsible actions are, or ought to be trumpeted and irresponsible actions should be acknowledged. This is not always so. Some companies doing well in regards to CSR fail to communicate this message effectively or meaningfully. Some companies either knowingly or unknowingly doing badly in regards to CSR, in other words they are at the CSI end of the spectrum, might have their practices exposed and thus be in need of a communication strategy to deal with such an event. The CSR pyramid and de? nitional constructs Corporate social responsibility is de? ned by the British government on their website www. csr. gov. uk/whatiscsr. html as being about how: business takes account of its economic, social and environmental impacts in the way it operates – maximising the bene? ts and minimising the downsides’’ (Crown copyright, 2004). However this de? nition is only one of numerous and in some cases apparently polarised viewpoints of how CSR is de? ned in academic and professional thought (see for example, Carroll, 1979, 1991). Furthermore it has been proposed that CSR can be seen to be a construct that is individual to the stakeholder that de? nes it, and has been referred to as the social contract organisations have with their stakeholders (Bowd et al. 2005). Tullberg (2005) suggested two approaches to CSR; one the ‘‘responsive’’ and the second the ‘‘autonomous’’ approach. The autonomous approach is described as more independent and involves the company ignoring other stakeholders’ opinions to formulate strategy. The responsive approach suggests organisations should aim at being as responsive as possible to the demands emanating from society for them to act responsibly. This approach allows managers to think about the hypothetical public reaction to situations and to consider strategies to deal with them. In carrying out an analysis of CSR de? itions in academic and professional literature Bowd et al. (2006, p. 150) captured a variety of points and attributes that are believed to make up CSR and suggest it involves: . . . proactive community involvement, philanthropy, corporate governance, corporate citizenship, addressing of social issues, a commitment to the quality of its products and services, human rights, health, safety and the environment. . . Carroll (1979, 1991) and Wood (1991) have contributed to building de? nitions of the different levels at which organisations respond to their corporate social responsibilities. These levels of responsibility are de? ed as follows: B Economic level. Organisation produces products and services that society wants and sells them at a pro? t. Legal level. Organisation obeys all the laws and rules applied by the state. (E. g. tax, regulation, etc. ) Ethical level. Organisation views it as its responsibility to satisfy society’s expectations of business to go beyond basic legal requirements and do what is just and fair, and their practice is re? ective of this. Discretionary level. Organisation goes beyond stakeholder views of what is just and fair, and is an exemplary corporate citizen (adapted from Carroll (1979, 1991)).B B B It is clear from the list above that Carroll’s (1991) pyramid has at its base starting point the economy and economic performance. This is seen as pivotal and from this the second level concerned as it is with the law and legal rights, duties, rules and obligations are built. The third level is focused on business ethics in a wide stakeholder context. Finally the discretionary level involves philanthropy and this is where an organisation typically goes beyond its everyday expected duty and is thus deemed to be a good corporate citizen. Carroll (1991, p. 2) cautions that: No metaphor is perfect, and the CSR pyramid is no exception. It is intended to portray that the total CSR of business comprises distinct components that, taken together, con stitute the whole. Though the components have been treated as separate concepts for discussion purposes, they PAGE 302 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 j j are not mutually exclusive and are not intended to juxtapose a ? rm’s economic responsibilities with its other responsibilities. These points remain relevant to the circumstances of the 21st century.Nevertheless, Carroll’s (1991) model can be critiqued on a number of grounds. Firstly in adopting and applying a level based pyramid approach it appears as a staged hierarchy in which movement is based on ? xed criteria. It is contested here that this is not necessarily the case and that the concept of a levels based approach and ? xed criteria can act as a hindrance to further developing knowledge and understanding. Secondly the dynamism that characterises the social, economic and business world is only partially captured by the CSR pyramid.At times, like all models Carroll’s pyramid appears as a t heoretical abstract removed from the complex realities of the world it seeks to explain. Despite these criticisms Carroll’s (1991) pyramid of corporate social responsibility does have varying degrees of theoretical and practical utility. The application of the model, together with the context in which it operates and an understanding of what it seeks to achieve at both the abstract and practical levels are in a number of respects crucial in developing knowledge, making sense of and interpreting the world.The model is useful as it aids understanding of CSR, the issues that pertain to it and can therefore help improve communication. The model helps unravel the concept, establishes key elements and distinguishes itself in its exploration of CSR. For this alone Carroll’s (1979, 1991) pyramid deserves plaudits. Nevertheless, despite the merits of the model it is suggested here (see Figure 2) that it can be improved by addressing the staged level based hierarchy to make it a more ? uid concept better able to adapt to a world in a state of near perennial ? ux.Change is constant and theoretical models are required to re? ect this universal truism. The CSI-CSR framework The CSI-CSR model As previously discussed in relation to the various component parts and models available, CSR can mean different things to different people. It might be suggested that a clear de? nition of the term should be provided for policy makers, practitioners, activists, business and the community. This issue has already been alluded to in terms of the existing plethora of de? nitions in existence and it is unlikely that one unifying de? ition will be agreed upon given the competing agendas of different stakeholders. Figure 2 CSI-CSR environmental dynamic model VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL PAGE 303 j j It is contested here that traditionally CSR has been confused and equated with CSI. For many, CSR is understood as, or de? ned in relation to, CSI; for example dis cussion of social responsibility issues often occurs when things are perceived as having ‘‘gone wrong’’ such as the recent Bear Stearns and Northern Rock crises.It is therefore necessary at the level of policy and practice and important at a conceptual level to separate out and de? ne the terms. CSI can be de? ned in relation to the issues that encompass it. For the key differences between CSI and CSR please see Table I. CSI is about being reactive as opposed to proactive in addressing corporate issues and the ways and means by which they relate to wider society. At its extreme CSI may entail breaking the law (e. g. Conrad Black, Robert Maxwell, Ernest Saunders). Companies such as Enron, Worldcom, and amongst others Union Carbide typify CSI.Getting it wrong in relation to CSR, in other words operating in a CSI manner, can have disastrous social, economic and business consequences as the aforementioned companies demonstrate so well. The bi-polar model develo ped here is not a one-dimensional linear process, as depicted below, in which investors, producers and consumers move from being irresponsible to being socially responsible. The trajectory proposed in Figure 3, based as it is on the Whig view of history in which the march of progress is seen as inevitable, is an ideal to be striven towards. The Whig interpretation of history has been described by Marwick (1989, p. 05) as: Table I CSR-CSI positions CSI Environmental degradation and pollution are inevitable and little if anything can or should be done Employees are a resource to be exploited Minimal community consultation and involvement Failure to comply, or reluctant and only basic compliance with legislation pertaining to CSR Ethical issues, if relevant at all are on the periphery of organisational working CSR Environmental degradation and pollution are not inevitable, should not be tolerated and it is important to raise awareness and commit to action Employees are a resource to be valued Maximise opportunities for community consultation and involvement Compliance with, as well as policy and practical actions that go beyond the minimum legislative requirements for CSR Ethical issues are central to and at the heart of organisational working Social exclusion is an inevitable by product of the operation of the Social inclusion helps to correct market inef? ciencies market New technologies should be developed and introduced to the market Governance of companies is best left to shareholders and management Work with suppliers and customers on an unfair basis Pragmatic approach to CSR issues Sustainability de? ned in terms of business survival Pro? is the sole purpose of business and should be achieved at any cost New technologies should be developed, tested, evaluated and if harmless introduced to the market Governance of companies involves shareholders, managers and a wide range of stakeholders including unions, works councils etc Work fairly with suppliers and cu stomers Principled and pragmatic approach to CSR issues Sustainability de? ned in terms of business, environmental and community survival and mutual growth Pro? t is one of many purposes of business and should be achieved, but not at any cost Figure 3 Linear CSI-CSR model PAGE 304 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 j j . . the view, prevalent in nineteenth century Britain, that history was steady progress towards liberal ideas and institutions. The reality of CSI and CSR is something of a more complex dynamic. It is contested here that CSI and CSR lie at opposite ends of a continuum. On the CSI-CSR continuum individuals, groups and organisations are not static but move between the two extremes. Movement between the positions is two directional and is driven by external environment factors such as legislation, politics, technology, ? nance, economics, culture and such like. One factor may prompt movement towards CSR whilst a counter prevailing factor may prompt movement towards CSI.The dichotomous CSI-CSR framework contains within it an inherent tension that is irreconcilable given that CSR is an ever-evolving concept; for example, the recent move towards bio-fuels intended to address the problem of climate change and global warming is now being called into question as a result of the in? ationary impact it is having on food prices. It is a two way variable process and movement is back, forwards and multi-directional depending on the factors driving the issues. CSI and CSR need to be unpackaged in order to better understand the complex nature of their components, function, operation and practice. The model outlined in Figure 1 depicts the two-way ? ow of CSI and CSR and has the potential to act as a tool for un-packaging and better understanding of the terms.The CSI-CSR model contributes to theoretical analysis and practical description and explanation. Depending on which side of the model businesses choose to operate within CSR can be either a â⠂¬ËœÃ¢â‚¬Ëœcore’’ or ‘‘add on’’ feature. For companies at the left of the spectrum and although there is other recent examples (e. g. Bear Stearns) nothing typi? es this better than Enron, CSR is an ‘‘add on’’ feature to their business operation – an afterthought rather than forethought. For companies at the right of the spectrum, such as the Co-operative Bank in the UK, CSR is a core feature that underpins, informs and guides their business strategy, operation and practice.Corporate communication practitioners could use the model to map and monitor CSR issues as they impact on their organisation. The model can be used in both a reactive and a proactive way. For example management might undertake a mapping and monitoring exercise, in other words a CSR audit, whereby they identify where their organisation lies on the CSI-CSR spectrum according to pro? t, ethical standards, human resources, community involvement and so on. Such an exercise will help practitioners identify areas in which their organisation is performing well with regards to CSR and identify areas for improvement. The model is useful in so far as it allows for the application of theory to communication practice.The CSI-CSR model provides for an analytical approach as opposed to a more prescriptive, staged approach to corporate citizenship (Mirvis and Googins, 2006). Some of the issues impacting on and shaping the changing dynamics of the CSI-CSR continuum are shown in Figure 1 and given more detail in Table I. Almost inevitably CSI and CSR are ideal types and as such have potential but also limits to their usefulness. As ideal types the two approaches shown in Table I serve to represent the extreme positions. Reality is often a complex mix of CSI and CSR modes of working. In a business, community or organisational setting CSR practice in part depends on various stakeholder requirements, customer and business needs.Whether wit h regards to customers, suppliers or the wider community a mix of CSI and CSR mode of working can operate comfortably alongside and within the various functional areas of management and the actual practices of the business itself. The CSI versus CSR framework allows managerial practitioners, theoreticians and others to discuss, contextualise and re? ect on their own practice in relation to CSR. In itself the model does not provide answers but as a managerial tool of analysis it allows for exploration of issues that may otherwise be ignored, or simply forgotten. Rochlin and Googins (2005, p. 2) write: Increasingly, businesses are becoming exposed to the risks associated with the gap between what they say and what they do. ‘What they say’’ might be equated with CSR and ‘‘what they do’’ might be equated with CSI. There is a gap between management rhetoric and reality as it is experienced and lived on the ground. The CSI-CSR framework allows management to acknowledge company VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL PAGE 305 j j mistakes, errors, as well as misjudgements and thereby help minimise reputation and substantive business damage from the rhetoric-reality gap. Increasingly business recognises the need to move from an irresponsible to a responsible position on CSR/corporate citizenship issues, such as community involvement. The CSI-CSR model can be described as a conduit of corporate governance in that it acts as an enabler to action.As a problem-solving tool it can assist planning and thus help facilitate a potentially better managed, more productive and socially responsible, pro? table business. As previously mentioned a CSR audit can help pre-empt and react to problems and in this sense the model acts as a problem-solving tool by identifying business and organisational areas for improvement. Having identi? ed areas that need addressing the business or organisation needs to establish a CSR plan of actio n to limit potential damage and maximise potential gain. The plan will need to be monitored and reviewed and ought to have short, medium and long-term aims and objectives.In all of this both internal and external communication is central to deliver effective corporate CSR change. It is suggested here that CSI is better suited to the workings of the ‘‘old’’ shareholder business model with the CSR approach being better suited to the needs of the new stakeholder business model (see for example, Hutton, 1995, 1999). The ‘‘old’’ shareholder business model (Friedman, 1962) with its overwhelming focus on pro? t and little or no regard to issues such as the environment is prone to the adoption of irresponsible business practices, a current example being the case of American banks and the sub-prime lending crisis. In contrast, the ‘‘new’’ stakeholder business model (Freeman, 1984) focuses on pro? but also seeks to address other issues of concern. As such, the CSI versus CSR model is representative of both broader and deeper structural change within the body politic, economy and society. Hutton et al. (1996, p. 88) write: Any civilised community should be justly concerned to create as much wealth as it can, to ensure that income and wealth are fairly shared and that centres of private and public power are properly accountable. The aim must be to build a free, moral, socially cohesive society based on universal membership, social inclusion and organised around the market economy. This is what we mean by the stakeholder economy and society.It can be argued that there has been a paradigmatic shift from a business model and way of working in which shareholder interests and issues such as return on investment reign supreme, to one whereby different stakeholders compete to in? uence and shape the business agenda, so that shareholder interests are simply one of many. Holding this thought in mind anot her way of conceptualising the CSI-CSR model and its relationship with internal and external environmental factors is detailed below. Figure 2 serves to show that internal and external variables as well as mixing with and affecting each other also interact and impact on the CSI-CSR continuum. The model conceived here is a rotating sphere intersected by its axis, the continuum. Business does not operate in a vacuum, it has rights as well as obligations and has competing needs to meet and address.Rights (see, amongst others, Locke, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1979 and Steiner, 1994), obligations (see Turner, 1986) and needs (see Ignatieff, 1990) change over time and between contexts. Customer needs do not always equate with supplier needs, for example in terms of delivery of goods. Compared to even the relatively recent past businesses today have obligations to address environmental and sustainability issues, for example by sourcing all or part of their energy needs from renewable sources. Busi nesses do have a right and are expected as well as encouraged to make a pro? t but not at any cost, for example by the use of child labour. Increasingly businesses have to meet increasing public expectations and to address legal obligations around environmental and sustainability issues. The need of business to make pro? can, and does at times, coincide as well as con? ict with its stated ethical aims and objectives. Competing stakeholders with differing needs, rights and obligations have to be managed to ensure con? ict is minimised, the business survives, grows and is able to meet its commitments to CSR. How needs, rights and obligations are prioritised and met in the context of changing internal and external environmental factors can determine business, life, death and growth. Rotating as it does on its axis serves to demonstrate that external as well as internal factors can at PAGE 306 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 j j times buffet direction of the sphere and m ovement on the axis.Equally so, movement on the CSI-CSR continuum, or axis, can affect change and direction in the external and internal environment. Thus far the article has proposed a move away from a de? nition, explanation and analysis of CSR as a staged hierarchy; as espoused by Carroll (1991) in his pyramid of corporate social responsibility. Here, an alternative conceptualisation is suggested based on the notion that CSI should be separated out from CSR to facilitate greater understanding of the terms, their meaning, nature and purpose. Issues interspersed and feeding into the CSI-CSR continuum are affected by internal and external environmental factors. Such factors give shape, form and context to corporate governance and CSR.Placing Carroll’s (1991) pyramid of corporate social responsibility in a sphere (see above, Figure 2) as well as on and intersected by the CSI-CSR axis makes for an interesting theoretical and conceptual move. Putting the pyramid metaphorically i n the sphere recognises that the levels of responsibility are intrinsic to the way in which CSR is conceived. However, in suggesting that the pyramid and by implication the levels, can be rotated the inference is that the levels are neither hierarchical or static but ? uid and necessary to the other. In this model the levels move and take on differing degrees of importance according to internal and external environmental factors and the issues impacting on the directional movement of the CSI-CSR continuum.Contextual factors mean that economic, legal, ethical and discretionary levels change position inside the pyramid and that one cannot be fully understood without reference to the other. There is almost structured chaos within the model and thus lends itself to ideas emanating from chaos and complexity theories (see for example Marion, 1999; Byrne, 1998; Rowley and Roevens, 2000). The signi? cance of this article’s theoretical contribution is that it addresses the discussion and de? nition of CSR. By introducing the concept of CSI it counteracts the tendency to treat the concept of CSR as a one-dimensional single entity and unpacks the terms to reveal multi-faceted layers of complexity that are shaped by context. The idea of corporations acting irresponsibly is theoretically validated by the arguments posited here.As an analytical tool the CSI-CSR typology is of use to academics and practitioners as it facilitates the development of pro-active as well as re-active internal and external communication strategies. It is increasingly the case that CSR and CSI are issues about which corporations are required and expected to communicate. To do this effectively tools of analysis are required and herein lies the unique contribution of this article. Concluding remarks This article has explored and analysed CSR and its antithesis CSI. That businesses act both irresponsibly and responsibly is highlighted in the distinction made by the terms. The terms themselves a re often con? ated and a greater distinction ought to be drawn between CSR and CSI.It is wrong to equate irresponsible business practice with CSR. Writing about the issue of social responsibility Milton Friedman (1962:133) asserted that it was ‘‘fundamentally subversive’’. More than 40 years on since making those claims it is interesting to speculate as to how Friedman would describe the concept of CSI. The concept may act as an af? rmation of his original statement and could well be described by some as being ‘‘totally subversive’’. However, this description only tells part of the story, for the reality is that CSI allows for greater understanding and clarity of the processes and practices by which businesses operate in doing good as well as doing wrong.The CSI-CSR framework acts as a tool of support for management to identify issues that may do harm to the business, pre-empt or react to them, and thus not only place the business in a better position to survive but to also better meet customer needs. What some may deem to be a subversive concept is in fact a practical tool of analysis for an increasingly competitive business environment. The CSI-CSR framework enables businesses to better meet existing and emerging needs in a dynamic, highly competitive, ever-changing business environment. The proposed bi-polar, dualistic model enables analysis of CSR business practice and allows for change and measurement to be reported on in terms of a sliding scale of ‘‘doing good’’ as well as ‘‘doing bad’’. As well as operating as a theoretical conceptual model the VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL PAGE 307 j j roposed framework is also a tool of analysis that can be applied and used to enhance and make more transparent systems and practices of CSR. Analysed at a super? cial, linguistic level CSR is a concept that is hard to disagree with. It has a ‘à ¢â‚¬Ëœwarm’’ and ‘‘positive’’ feel to it and is something to which stakeholders are happy to sign up to in one way, shape or form. The sub-textual message inferred by the term CSR is that corporations are socially responsible. The term CSI challenges this CSR sub-text and poses questions around how corporations communicate these issues. That corporations can act irresponsibly is not something easily refuted.CSI and CSR are politically infused language based terms that surround and are about the roles of business, corporations and the politics and discourse of the workplace. The language used is soothing, calming and designed to ameliorate dissenting points of view. It is about building consent. At the same time however it is important for business to acknowledge when things go wrong in regards to issues of social responsibility, know how to deal with and manage the communication issues surrounding them with a view to mounting a damage limitati on exercise. One term cannot be conceived without the other, they are intertwined, belong to and are about each other. It is suggested here that CSI and CSR are part and parcel of the fabric of the ideal of a free, democratic, stakeholding, capitalist economy and society.As such, they are issues that require debate, monitoring and the engagement of individual and corporate active citizenship (see Marshall, 1963). Communication and dialogue are of critical importance for developing understanding and building knowledge of how to be a good individual and corporate citizen. For some the shift from a CSI to a CSR position is a perceptual rather than a substantive change. This critique of the CSR agenda is the voice of cynicism and belies what for others is an actual change in attitude and business practice. This of course is not to say that more could not be done. Such a critique is not without some merit in so far as CSI, even in today’s ‘‘open’’ and â⠂¬ËœÃ¢â‚¬Ëœtransparent’’ organisations, remains somewhat hidden from view.It should not be forgotten that CSI can impact on and harm companies’ bottom line and it is primarily for this reason that a conspiracy of silence pervades organisations and workplace cultures where irresponsible practices exist. Communication using open and transparent dialogue within organisations can facilitate the breaking of silence around irresponsible corporate practices and might limit future damage and/or create new business opportunities. The majority of companies are keen to embrace CSR issues and of their own volition go beyond legal minimum requirements. Not only do companies want to do well by doing good, but also some want to do good because they believe it to be the right and proper thing to do. Not all businesses are communicating what it is they do in regards to CSR to best effect.Regarding their social responsibility practices a CSI-CSR audit can help businesses identify areas of strength and areas for improvement. In itself such an exercise can act as a useful vehicle of and for communication. It is increasingly recognised that adopting a CSR approach can be both an ethical and pro? table way to manage a business. Ethics and pro? t are not mutually exclusive terms but have a symbiotic relationship in the form of CSR. Though nevertheless, at the end of the day and as Friedman (1962) rightly noted, the purpose of business is to make pro? t. In revisiting the work by Carroll (1979, 1991, 1999) and his exposition of CSR this article has sought to build on and further develop the concept, from both an academic and practitioner perspective.In applying the CSI-CSR framework as a legitimate tool of application and analysis it has established the premise that business does not always act in a responsible manner and does at times, given a particular set of circumstances, act irresponsibly. The import of the CSI-CSR model is in establishing this idea and rec ognising that from a theoretical and communication practice based world viewpoint action can be taken to address and minimise opportunities for irresponsible corporate actions and to maximise opportunities for responsible social behavior. The broad de? nition of good, ethically driven corporate governance strives towards CSR and away from CSI. Behaving in a CSR way makes sound business sense, as Enron, Worldcom and others bear testimony.The challenge for the future (http://www. foresight. gov. uk/) is to move mindsets away from CSI and to CSR proper. PAGE 308 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 j j References Arpan, L. M. (2005), ‘‘Integration of information about corporate social performance’’, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 83-98. Birch, D. (2008), ‘‘Analysis of CSR: principles and concepts’’, Social Responsibility Journal, Vol. 4 Nos 1-2, pp. 129-35. Bowd, R. , Bowd, L. and Har ris, P. (2006), ‘‘Communicating corporate social responsibility: an exploratory case study of a major UK retail centre’’, Journal of Public Affairs,, May, pp. 147-55. Bowd, R. , Jones, B. nd Tench, R. (2005), CSR and the Media, Summary Research Report, Leeds Metropolitan University and Connectpoint, Leeds. Byrne, D. (1998), Complexity Theory and the Social Sciences: An Introduction, Routledge, London. Carroll, A. (1979), ‘‘A three-dimensional conceptual model of corporate performance’’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 4 No. 4, pp. 497-505. Carroll, A. (1991), ‘‘The pyramid of corporate social responsibility: toward the moral management of organizational stakeholders’’, Business Horizons, July-August. Carroll, A. (1999), ‘‘Corporate social responsibility: evolution of a de? nitional construct’’, Business and Society, Vol. 38 No. 3, pp. 68-95. Commission of the European Communiti es (2001), Promoting a European Framework for Corporate Social Responsibility, Commission of the European Communities, Brussels. Commission of the European Communities (2002), Communication from the Commission Concerning; Corporate Social Responsibility: A Business Contribution to Sustainable Development, Commission of the European Communities, Brussels. Committee on the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance (1992), Cadbury Report, Committee on the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance, London. Cornelissen, J. (2004), Corporate Communications, Theory and Practice, Sage, London. Demetrious, K. 2008), ‘‘Corporate social responsibility, new activism and public relations’’, Social Responsibility Journal, Vol. 41 Nos 1/2, pp. 104-19. Donaldson, T. and Preston, L. E. (1995), ‘‘Stakeholder theory of the corporation: concepts, evidence and implications’’, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 65-91. Evuleocha, S. U. (2005), ‘‘Managing indigenous relations corporate social responsibility in a new age of activism’’, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, Vol. 10 No. 4, pp. 328-40. Freeman, R. E. (1984), Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach, Pitman, Boston, MA. Friedman, M. (1962), Capitalism and Freedom, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. Hutton, W. 1995), The State We’re in, Vintage, Colchester. Hutton, W. (1999) in Goldblatt, D. (Ed. ), The Stakeholding Society: Writings on Politics and Economics, Polity Press, Cambridge. Hutton, W. , Field, F. , Kay, J. , Marquand, D. and Gray, J. (1996), ‘‘Tony and the Tories: this is what we mean’’, Observer, 7 July 1996, pp. 88-92. Ignatieff, M. (1990), The Needs of Strangers, The Hogarth Press, London. Letza, S. , Sun, X. and Kirkbride, J. (2004), ‘‘Shareholding versus stakeholding: a critical review of corporate governance’’, Corporate Governan ce, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 242-62. Locke, J. (1958) in von Leyden, W. (Ed. ), Essays on the Law of Nature, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Locke, J. 1959), An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 2 vols, Dover, New York, NY. Locke, J. (1960) in Laslett, P. (Ed. ), Two Treatises of Government, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Locke, J. (1979) in Sherman, C. L. (Ed. ), Treatise on Civil Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration, Irvington, New York, NY. Marion, R. (1999), The Edge of Organisation: Chaos and Complexity Theories of Formal Social Systems, Sage, Newbury Park, CA. VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL PAGE 309 j j Marwick, A. (1989), The Nature of History, 3rd ed. , Macmillan Press Ltd, Basingstoke. Marshall, T. H. (1963), Sociology at the Crossroads, Heinemann Educational Books, London. Mirvis, P. nd Googins, B. (2006), Stages of Corporate Citizenship: A Developmental Framework, The Center for Corporate Citizenship at Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA. Nielsen, A. E. and Thomsen, C. (2007), ‘‘Reporting CSR – what and how to say it? ’’, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 25-40. Riese, J. (2007), ‘‘Thou shalt not be good enough: (mis)understanding CSR’’, Social Responsibility Journal, Vol. 3 No. 4, pp. 15-20. Rochlin, S. A. and Googins, B. K. (2005), The Value Proposition for Corporate Citizenship, The Center for Corporate Citizenship at Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA. Rowley, R. M. and Roevens, J. J. 2000), Organise with Chaos: Putting Modern Chaos Theory to Work in Your Organisation, Management Books, Chalford. Sampson, A. (1983), The Sovereign State: Secret History of International Telephone and Telegraph, Coronet Books, Philadelphia, PA. Schleifer, A. and Vishny, R. W. (1997), ‘‘A survey of corporate governance’’, The Journal of Finance, Vol. 52, pp. 727-83. Steiner, H. (1994), An Essay on Rights, Blackwell, Oxford. Tullberg, J. (2005), ‘‘What should companies be responsible for? ’’, Business Ethics: A European View, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 261-3. Turner, B. S. (1986), Citizenship and Capitalism: The Debate over Reformism, Allen and Unwin, London. Wood, D. 1991), ‘‘Corporate social performance revisited’’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 758-69. Whetten, D. , Rands, G. and Godfrey, P. (2002), ‘‘What are the responsibilities of business to society’’, in Pettigrew, A. , Howard, T. and Whittington, R. (Eds), Handbook of Strategy and Management, Sage, pp. 373-408. Further reading Center for Corporate Citizenship at Boston College and The US Chamber of Commerce Center for Corporate Citizenship (2005), The State of Corporate Citizenship in the US Business Perspectives in 2005, The Center for Corporate Citizenship at Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA. European Commission (2004), European Multistakeholder Forum o n CSR, Final Report, 29 June.European Commission, Employment and Social Affairs, Industrial relations and industrial change, European Commission Directorate-General for Employment and Social Affairs (2004), ABC of the Main Instruments of Corporate Social Responsibility, European Commission. Little, A. D. (2003), The Business Case for Corporate Responsibility, Beacon Press, Uck? eld. Corresponding author Brian Jones can be contacted at: b. t. [email  protected] ac. uk To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email  protected] com Or visit our web site for further details: www. emeraldinsight. com/reprints PAGE 310 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL VOL. 5 NO. 3 2009 j j

Ethical Issues- Schizophrenia

Many ethical issues can be presented when working in the medical field; a few major issues are presented in the case of Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a mental disorder in which people may hear voices in their heads that tell them to do immoral things, which are not there. A Schizophrenic person may also sit for hours without moving or talking, and are not completely sane. This disorder is a result of genetic and environmental factors. One of the issues that are involved with schizophrenia is telling schizophrenics, partial truths or lies.Studies have shown that when a schizophrenic is directly confronted, they usually do not return for treatment. As a result, some psychiatrists tell their patients â€Å"half-truths† or lies such as treating patients but telling them the medication is for anxiety or dysphasia, this way patients receive adequate treatment. Ultimately the psychiatrist is doing what is best for the patient, but is it really okay to lie to a patient? Another issu e is presented during the treatment of a schizophrenic patient, occasionally a patient will ask a psychiatrist for heir opinion on whether or not to pursue a lifelong dream they may have.When this occurs, the psychiatrist is presented with the decision of whether or not to support the patient on their dream. If the psychiatrist believes the patient is not capable of accomplishing their goal because of their mental disorder, they might discourage the patient form pursuing it because if they were to pursue it and fail, it could possibly worsen the disorder. On the other hand, the psychiatrist might support the patient in their dream, because in the situation where the patient accomplishes their goal, the notation may improve and could result in a better quality of life.So what should the psychiatrist do in this situation, when is it okay for the psychiatrist to decide what goes on in a patient's life? A third issue would be the whether or not to ask a patient dealing with this disorde r if they would like to write their advance directives. Advance directives are written consent of what would happen to the patient in the occasion that they lose decisional capabilities, what type of treatment they would receive, etc.Although advance directives maybe taken as a precaution and not because anything is occurring with the patient, upon being asked for these documents a patient may be caused fear which could result in worsening of the illness. So should the psychiatrist ask a patient for the advance directives knowing it may have a negative result on their health? The involvement of family in the life of a schizophrenic could be extremely beneficial, but convincing a schizophrenic to involve their family is yet another issue.The process of persuading a mental disorder patient at some point becomes coercion, which is never morally correct because it could be considered as taking advantage of a mentally challenged person. Although coercion is never technically correct, in the long run the involvement of the family will have enormous benefits on the patient, so the psychiatrist must make a decision on if they should or shouldn't coerce the patient to involve their family. I believe that all the ethical issues presented are difficult, but the psychiatrist should always keep the patients well.

Importance of Health and Safety in Early Childhood

Importance of Health and safety in early childhood When opening a centre one of the most important things is Health and Safety. Making sure that the children, families and teachers are in a safe and healthy environment is paramount. The centre should ensure that all teachers and management have the same expectations regarding health and safety, that’s why it is important that everyone reads the Licensing Criteria for Early Childhood and Care Centres 2008 which clearly states the high standard that everyone has to abide by.Three really important practices from the Licensing Criteria are â€Å"Providing a Safe Environment†, â€Å"Identifying and responding to childhood illness† and â€Å"Nutrition across the Early Years†. As per the regulations of the licensing criteria premises and facilities standard it is up to the management and teachers to insure the premises that are being used provide sufficient and suitable space for a range of activities, eating, sl eeping, toileting and food preparation to cater for a number and age range of children.With this in mind teachers need to be mindful when setting up the environment to make sure that they are putting out equipment that is safe and will support the child’s development. The environment needs to be set out in a way that is appealing to children and offers a range of activities, a space for quiet activities, room for physical play and spaces for a range of group and individual learning experiences that are age and ability appropriate for all children’s learning, also making sure that the environment does not impact on the supervision of the children.It is up to the teachers to be responsible in keeping the environment safe by doing regular safety checks and noting down any equipment that needs fixing. Being able to Identify and respond to childhood illness is an important part of the teacher’s role. Teachers should be knowledgeable in all illnesses, especially conta gious and infectious illness. When working at a centre all teachers should be familiar with the centres policy on illness and how to deal with it accordingly, also when new families start at the centre the parents should be shown or given a copy of the policy so they are also familiar with the centres policy on illness.It is up to the teachers to unsure that if a child becomes unwell while attending the centre they are kept either in a separate room or a safe distance from other children so as to minimise the spread of the infection. Making sure all linen used by children is hygienically cleaned is one way to stop the spread of infection. In accordance with the licensing criteria teachers must keep a written record of all serious illnesses that occur at the centre.Concentrating on the Healthy side of health and safety it is up to the teachers to promote the importance of healthy and good nutrition to the children. Some fun and interesting ways teachers can teach children about healt hy eating and good nutrition is getting the children involved in setting up and growing a vegetable garden, allowing the children to help with the preparation of meals giving the teacher the opportunity to talk about the different foods and which ones are healthy choices to eat.As teachers we are constantly being observed by the children so therefore we should be role modelling healthy eating by eating fruit with the children and making sure to only drink water around the children, no sugary drinks. By doing this we are also keeping in accordance with the licensing criteria by supervising children while eating and offering water regularly. Children often learn more by observing others then by what they are told so as teachers we need to embrace their way of learning and lead by example.To be successful in implementing the health and safety practices discussed above all teachers and management need to be are aware of the policies regarding all aspects of health and safety, then they will be knowledgeable in implementing it into the centre and will feel comfortable talking to parents about the relevant policies regarding their child’s well-being. With the help and guidance of the Licensing Criteria for Early Childhood Education and Care Centres 2008 there is no reason why a centre cannot set up a healthy and safe environment for children of all ages and abilities to further the child’s mental and physical development.Reference List Marotz, L. R. , Cross, M. Z. , & Rush, J. M. (2005). Health, safety, and nutrition for the young child (6th ed. ). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning. Ministry of Education. (1996). Te Whariki: He whariki matauranga mo nga mokopuna o Aotearoa/ Early childhood curriculum. Wellington: Learning Media. Ministry of Education. (2008). Licensing Criteria for Early Childhood Education and Care Centres 2008 And Early Childhood Education Curriculum Framework. Wellington: New Zealand Government. Retrieved 20 March, 2013, from http:/ /www. lead. ece. govt. nz/ServiceTypes/CentreBasedECEServices. aspx.

REFELCTIVE ANALYSIS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Essay

REFELCTIVE ANALYSIS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT - Essay Example Following Gibbs’ (1988) model of reflection, I shall establish the integration between theory and practice. This model identified six stages involved in reflective practice where at each stage the I would ask myself a number of questions leading to the final stage of an action plan. It begins with selecting a critical incident to reflect upon followed by keen observing and describing of the incident, then analyzing my experience. This is followed by interpreting the experience and exploring alternatives leading up to an action plan. This is is a cyclical process which enables continual retrospective reflection. II. Reflective Practice Reflective practice has been a key underpinning of qualified nurses since the United Kingdom Central Council for Nursing, Midwifery and Health Visiting (UKCC) (1992) required them to keep a professional portfolio. As professionals, we are accountable for our ongoing learning and self development, providing the best care to our patients. To ensure this, we need to focus on our actions and skills to be able to meet the demands of patients, colleagues and professional bodies. In order to be reflective practitioners, we need to be reflective thinkers. â€Å"Reflective thinking is thinking that is aware of its own assumptions and implications as well as being conscious of the reasons and evidence that support the conclusion† (Lipman, 2003, p.26). John Dewey defined reflective thinking as â€Å"an active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusion to which it tends† (cited in Martin, 1995, p.167). Reflective thinking leads one to be more self-aware so he can develop new knowledge about professional practice. Reflective practice has been recognised to be an important tool for professional development. Rowls and Swick (2000) agree and observed that practitioners who regularly reflected enabled them to develop t heir skills and the way they deal with patients. Schunk and Zimmerman (1998) describe how a self- reflective practice allows us to monitor, evaluate and adjust our performance during learning. Adjusting strategies based on assessment on our learning helps to achieve the goal of learning and identifying the activities well suited to our situations (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998). However, practitioners often found the process quite time consuming and there was a greater fear of becoming introspective or being critical of oneself too much in practice. It is likely that one can be too engrossed in his reflection that he gets to neglect the delivery of a great work performance. Schon’s theory outlines two different types of reflection that occur at different time phases: reflection on action (Schon 1983) and reflection in action (Schon 1983). ‘Reflection in action’ is often referred to the colloquial phrase as ‘thinking on your feet’ a term used to being able to assess ourselves within a situation, making appropriate changes and still keeping a steady flow in the process. Reflection on action is when reflection occurs after the event. This is where the practitioner makes a deliberate and conscious attempt to act and reflect upon a situation and how it should be handled in the future (Loughran 1996). This means while performing a professional

Art of Benin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Art of Benin - Essay Example This was also accompanied by increased interest in African people and their cultures. Africans were therefore described as savages and as people who openly practiced witchcraft. For instance, ‘The Golgotha, Benin’ is a portrait produce in the London News paper that describe Benin as a cannibalistic place with brutal practices. Prior to the emergence of the British, they were backward and less civilized. However, things changed once the British brought sanity to the place. The Benin great arts like the bronze sculptures brought forth a debate on the notion of inferiority of the African race. Experts formulated theories and explanations to downplay their doubters. For instance, Justus Brinekmann argued that the beautiful sculptures were as a result of interaction between Benin and ancient civilizations like the Egyptians or the Portuguese (pg.52). Henry Ling Roth who once insinuated that the bronze artifacts had European influence retracted his statements and conceded that the artifacts predated back before the Portuguese arrival. Failure to prove African inferiority, experts in British museums had to come up with reasonable explanations in order to maintain scientific superiority over other Europeans nations especially Germany. Ethnographic experts argued that indeed the artifacts were African; however, they dated them to coincide with the arrival of the Portuguese into their land. The evidence they brought forth was the absence of skilled artisans at the time. Therefore, after the Portuguese had gone, Africans re-evolved back to savages and degenerates. The concept of African inferiority art was further instilled into the global art form by the avant-garde artisans who were very popular in the early 1900s. They affirmed what the Europeans believed/or thought to be true of a simple and timeless art, that was free from ‘civilizing decorum’ (pg. 63). Ironically, these avant-garde artisans derived their inspirations from the same art

Homlessness Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Homlessness - Research Paper Example adequate nighttime residence; and an individual who has a primary nighttime residence that is – a supervised publicly or privately operated shelter designed to provide temporary living accommodations †¦ an institution that provides a temporary residence for individuals intended to be institutionalized or a public or private place not designed for, or ordinarily used as, a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings† (Federal, 2009). In other words, a homeless person is someone who does not have a regular, personal, secure place to sleep at night on a regular basis. This definition would also include people who live in their cars as this is not a ‘fixed’ location nor is it a place ‘designed for †¦ regular sleeping accommodation for human beings.’ This discussion will examine the homelessness issue including why and what type of people become homeless. It will also review agencies and programs offering assistance to individuals and f amilies living on the street. Thanks to recent public awareness campaigns by private and government agencies such as the National Coalition for the Homeless and the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development respectively, long-standing societal stereotypes of the homeless are gradually evaporating. Images of creatively clothed white-bearded old men leaning against an alley wall clutching a bottle wrapped in a brown paper bag have morphed into a family living in their car or a single mother and her children living in a shelter (Marsh & Kennett, 1999). This changing image of the homeless hasn’t come fast enough, though, to increase the level of awareness among the general population, creating a situation in which many of the nation’s homeless children go without necessary services and are forced to repeat the cycle into their own adulthood (Martijn & Sharpe, 2006). It is a matter of fact that the estimated half a million children that, at any one time, is homeless in America and their mothers r epresent

1. Explain what the terms correlations AND confounding variables mean Essay

1. Explain what the terms correlations AND confounding variables mean (in your own words, and cite the source) - Essay Example The article on Obesity in Latino Children seeks to identify factors that can be associated with overweight and obesity observed in Latino children (Kornides, Kitsantas, Yang & Villarruel, 2011). The study exhibited both correlations and confounding factors. Correlation in research study implies the characteristic relationship between the variables treated in the study. Specifically, correlation between variables implies that a change in one variable is accompanied by a change in another variable as a result of the first change (Kornides, Kitsantas, Yang & Villarruel, 2011). In other words, with one or more variables whose change induces change in another variable or variables, all the variables involved are said to be correlated. The study presented in the article seeks to identify factors that are primarily associated with obesity and overweight scenarios observed in Latino children. The study takes into account what other literatures have said about the issue and critiques the information contained therein. The study also identifies research loopholes in the literatures considered in line with the current trends in the issue around the time the study was conducted in the year 2011. Challenges that characterized the study are highlighted and future research propositions made on the subject matter of the study. Research studies also employ confounding variables to aid the treatment of objectives and hypothesis being examined. Confounding variables are research aiding tools that are crucial in the examination of the topic of study, but are relatively hard to measure or account for in the research undertaking (Kornides, Kitsantas, Yang & Villarruel, 2011). In other words, they are crucial aiding variables in a study in that they complement the dependent and independent research variables. Although confounding variables are not directly examined in the study, they enhance the inferences made by backing up the primary

Statistical Methods Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Statistical Methods - Assignment Example It is also important to note that gender and level of satisfaction may have things that cannot be deemed as job orientated or appear to divulge applicants inner feelings and thoughts. It is, therefore, the responsibility of the management to ensure that every employee feel appreciated and important in the place of work. Several studies have revealed a positive relationship between gender and the extent to which they feel their work is interesting. Most employees want to enjoy their work hence they will prefer to work on firms where they feel comfortable. However, the level at which an employee enjoy his or her work depends on the gender of the employee. Some jobs are better enjoyed by female employees as compared to male employees; and vice versa. In this regard, this study tries to understand the relationship between gender and extent to which respondents feel their work is interesting. The study uses 200 respondents from three employers- Smith Ltd, Jones Plc and Farmhouse. The variables used for the study gender, employer, enjoying the work, services, food, professional and many more. The number of respondents of the study was 200 with three employers-that is Smiths Ltd, Jones Plc. and Farmhouse. The number of respondents that participated in the survey in terms of gender was 96 and 104 for male and female respectively. This represents 47.8% and 51.7% respectively. As mentioned above, the employers were Smiths Ltd, Jones Plc. and Farmhouse. In this regard, 72 of the respondents were from Smiths Ltd while 70 and 58 of the respondents were from Jones Plc. and Farmhouse respectively. The number of male and female respondents from Smiths Ltd is 36 and 36 respectively. The number of male and female respondents from Jones Plc. is 37 and 33 respectively. On the other hand, the number of male and female respondents from Farmhouse is 23 and 35 respectively. The average weekly wage considering the three companies was 353.9990 with the highest paying company

Things i dont like Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Things i dont like - Essay Example The dislike of presenting, as far as I can tell from my particular perspective, is rooted in a fear of public speaking. Since this issue is commonly discussed in school, I had expected it to be well covered in literature. This was a correct assumption, but an initial glance at the research and theories of this condition presented a bit of a shock. For some reason, I hadnt considered that the problem might be linked to an anxiety disorder. To make it clear, I was well aware that I felt extremely anxious about presentations, but I did not ever think of it as a health concern. However, it does cause me distress and sometimes impedes my regular life, so an official assessment might tell a different story. This revelation strengthened my resolve, and gave meaning to the new goal of reducing my anxiety in public speaking situations. The next logical step in the process was to determine the factors that underlie the anxious response. A 2010 study (Nelson 282) suggests that biased processing in the brain is associated with anxiety disorders. Their study found that someone with public speaking anxiety is more likely to overestimate the risk of negative social interactions in both frequency and impact. This makes sense from an outside perspective, but I still feel stubborn to admit any exaggeration on my part. This is the kind of information I will need to become more open to, so that I may benefit in the future. Public speaking and presentations are a part of life for students, and so I can only make it easier on myself by letting my guard down and addressing these potential biases in my own cognitive processing. This assignment was to address multiple objects of distain in my life, and it turns out that public speaking anxiety is the perfect segue to the second item I had intended to address . I hate embarrassing situations. In fact, I now understand that the fear of being publically embarrassed is probably the root

The Individual And The Environment Essay Example for Free

The Individual And The Environment Essay The turn between the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries brought enormous changes for the American society, and these changes are cogently reflected in the works of the most important writers of the time. In the light of Frederick Jackson Turner’s theory of the significance of the frontier in the American history, one could argue that the multiple changes that took place at this time were determined, in part, by the closing of the frontier in 1890. The ever expanding frontier had functioned as a catalyzing element for the shaping of the American culture, with its main characteristics, pragmatism and individualism. The frontier, as the limit between wilderness and civilization, may have indeed contributed to the development of pragmatism, just as the closing of the frontier affected the following cultural epoch. After the Civil War and up to the World War I, the American economy developed immensely, to the point that The United States was among the greatest world powers at the beginning of the twentieth century. This was due especially to the ever increasing industrialization of the country, to its capitalism, but also to the great number of immigrants that arrived during this period. While economically the changes were indeed positive and influenced the future of the nation, their social impact was more dramatic. As the main literary works of the time show it, the individual suffered inevitably from alienation, and was overwhelmed and oppressed by the major social and economical fluctuations of the time. Civilization however desired begun to feel as a threat for the individual who lost his sense of identity and felt as a wheel in some greater mechanism. The literary works of the time revealed the pressure that the environment now exercised over the individual. This pressure was even heavier for women, who began to feel that they were not even part of the tumultuous activity of the epoch, since they could not even play an active part in the changes they witnessed. One of the most important writers of the time were thus the early feminists, such as Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Kate Chopin, and a little later, Edith Wharton. Their novels put the American discriminating society on display, and point to the gender stereotypes that trapped the women into immutable and pre-established social roles. Gilman (2000) discusses the place of the women in society in her work, Women and Economics: â€Å"In spite of the power of the individual will to struggle against conditions, to resist them for a while, and sometimes to overcome them, it remains true that the human creature is affected by his environment, as is every other living thing.[†¦] To take from any community its male workers would paralyze it economically to a far greater degree than to remove its female workers[†¦] This is not owing to lack of the essential human faculties necessary to such achievements, nor to any inherent disability of sex, but to the present condition of woman, forbidding the development of this degree of economic ability. The male human being is thousands of years in advance of the female in economic status. Speaking collectively, men produce and distribute wealth; and women receive it at their hands.† As Gilman suggests, the woman was in no way able to participate in society, and was taken to be a mere recipient of what the man would provide her with. She also infers that this role is not necessarily the natural role of the woman, but actually the one that was forced on her after many centuries of gender discrimination. The women appear to be even more trapped in their environment at this point in American history. Another salient writer of the time, Henry Adams in his book entitled The Education of Henry Adams constructs a very telling image of the American individual crushed by civilization and by his social circumstances: he represents the dynamo as a great force and a symbol that replaced in the American culture the missing pieces of tradition which were respected by the Europeans, such as Venus or the Virgin. The image has feminist implications as well, as Adams (2001) compares the sexless energy of the dynamo with both the Virgin and Venus, symbols of the woman in European tradition: â€Å"All this was to American thought as though it had never existed. The true American knew something of the facts, but nothing of the feelings; he read the letter, but he never felt the law. Before this historical chasm, a mind like that of Adams felt itself helpless; he turned from the Virgin to the Dynamo as though he were a Branly coherer.† Stephen Crane also creates a memorable image of the cruel universe, which seems to care nothing for the individual existence, and which binds everything to its general laws, not minding the separate lives of the people but only the system: â€Å"A man said to the universe: Sir I exist! However, replied the universe, The fact has not created in me A sense of obligation. (Perkins, 1999) Kate Chopin’s The Awakening is perhaps one of the most remarkable works of her time for its audacity, and it accurately gives a view of the individual in general oppressed by the social, inescapable nets and alienated from his primitive, natural state, and even more emphatically, reveals the condition of the woman, which is even worse. The imagery of the novel is fraught with opposite symbols of freedom versus entrapment, and of the human and natural individual, versus the unnatural and artificial society. Edna Pontellier, the protagonist of the story, is the character who undergoes a true awakening by the end of the novel, both as a woman and as an individual who finally escapes the laws of society and returns to the purity of the natural impulses and natural feelings in a human being. As a married woman and mother of two children, Edna is supposed to fill in the role of the perfect mother as society required, which is personified in the novel by Edna’ s friend, Mrs. Adele Ratignolle. The frequent fights that Edna has with her seemingly perfect husband depict even better her pre-established role as a self-sacrificing mother, who is supposed to think of nothing else but childbirth and all the other things related to nursing. From the start, even before her awakening Edna feels the oppression of her environment, although as yet she is not able to pinpoint it to a specific cause: â€Å"An indescribable oppression, which seemed to generate in some unfamiliar part of her consciousness, filled her whole being with a vague anguish.†(Perkins, 1999) This unconscious feeling is not fully understood even by Edna herself, since the women were not used to thinking and feeling as individuals, and to dissent in any way from what was already prescribed as their imposed conduct. Chopin’s insistence that Edna did not fit in her society and that she did not fit the mother profile is very significant, as it points to the sense that women have to be regarded as individuals who are entitled to their own inner lives, and not limited to their nursing activities, that would eventually â€Å"efface† any trace of their personality: â€Å"In short, Mrs. Pontellier was not a mother-woman. The mother women seemed to prevail that summer at Grand Isle. It was easy to know them, fluttering about with extended, protecting wings when any harm, real or imaginary, threatened their precious brood. They were women who idolized their children, worshiped their husbands, and esteemed it a holy privilege to efface themselves as individuals and grow wings as ministering angels.†(Perkins, 1999) The awakening of Edna is exactly her realization that she is a passionate human being, and moreover an individual who can relate to her environment as she chooses, and not on the basis of some foreordained laws of behavior: â€Å"Mrs. Pontellier was beginning to realize her position in the universe as a human being, and to recognize her relations as an individual to the world within and about her. This may seem like a ponderous weight of wisdom to descend upon the soul of a young woman of twenty-eightperhaps more wisdom than the Holy Ghost is usually pleased to vouchsafe to any woman.†(Perkins, 1999) Chopin is sharply ironical in the commentary she makes with regard to the unexpected wisdom in her character: for centuries women had been discriminated as individuals and as rational beings who could judge for themselves. The main transformation of Edna consists thus of her flaunting of all the social law, and willingly giving in to adultery to escape from the tyranny of her own husband: â€Å"To-day it is Arobin; to-morrow it will be some one else. It makes no difference to me, it doesnt matter about Leonce Pontellierbut Raoul and Etienne! (Perkins, 1999) However, in the end, before she drowns in the sea, undoubtedly a symbol of liberation, Edna achieves more than asserting her own rights and independence as a female. When she faces the sea, that is her freedom, she turns her back to the entrapping civilization and artificial society and is elated when she discovers her own nakedness, a symbol of the primitive and natural state of man: â€Å"[†¦]she stood naked in the open air, at the mercy of the sun, the breeze that beat upon her, and the waves that invited her. How strange and awful it seemed to stand naked under the sky! how delicious! She felt like some new-born creature, opening its eyes in a familiar world that it had never known.†(Perkins, 1999) Thus, at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, American literature displayed the rupture between the individual and his environment, and the alienation of the human beings in the midst of the overpowering civilization. This marked the beginning of the modern, urbane era, in which the developed society is apt to destroy individuality and the basic and natural humanity of every man. Reference List: Adams, Henry (2001) The Education of Henry Adams. Bartelby.com. http://www.bartleby.com/159/25.html Gilman, Charlotte Perkins (2000) Women and Economics. The Celebration of Women’s Writing. http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/gilman/economics/economics.html Perkins Charles and Barbara Perkins (1999). The American Tradition in Literature Vol. 1. New York: Mc-Graw Hill College

Adolescents Influence In Family Decision Making Social Work Essay

Adolescents Influence In Family Decision Making Social Work Essay Abstract This study examines the perceptions and behaviour of Adolescents influence in family decision making in different family circumstances and what products are more influenced through the child more than the adults. The research findings are based on different journal articles that show how much power children have in the decision making process based on different members of the family perceptions and how they get their message across on what they want through coalitions or solely on their own. In terms of family types; single-parent and step-families are increasing in todays society compared to intact families. Its now not unusual for parents to divorce and move on with someone else. This will make an impact on the childs role in family purchase decision making. Being a child in a single-parent family suggests that they have more power in the household whereas being a member of an intact family can cause disruption as there are many people to please in that household. However, in many circumstances the parents perceptions do not always agree with the childs opinion. A number of explanations and examples for this are given. Introduction For a long time, Adolescents have played an important role throughout family purchase decisions, with their capability to have an impact to directly and indirectly influence the decisions families make when purchasing products. (Thomson, Laing, McKee, 2007). This is put into practice throughout all different types of families, whether it is an intact family of 4, a family triad, a single parent family of 1 or a mix matched family making it a step-family. This means the perceptions on adolescent influence in decision making depend on what family the child belongs to. Adolescent behaviour is also important when the child makes an input into the decisions of purchase making. Coalition being the behaviour type authors focused on as children recognized a frequent need for a purchase between more than one family member and in the end created a coalition (Thomson, Laing, McKee, 2007). These include different members of the family working together with the child in order to make a stronger influence on family decisions whether it is a parent or a sibling. Children therefore play a part in family decision making no matter how big or small and the products in question can vary from groceries to holidays. Junk foods, toys, kids clothes and accessories for school are a few of the main products that children have been known to have a strong influence on. (Mangleburg T. F., 1990). Research on how much influence children have on certain products will also be explored. Childrens Behaviour -When and how do they influence buying? Children constitute a huge secondary market by influencing family purchases (McNeal, 2008). As soon as children have established the concept of using communication skills to make demands, they are then more involved in making an influence in family decision making. (Furnham, 1998), showing that from the moment they can talk, they will automatically have an influence on buying highlighting the fact that children are becoming a significant part to the family decision making process on purchases at an early age. The most important behaviour for a child when they influence decision making is the use of knowledge and information. When contemplating child purchase power, research shows that this is known as a uniting topic (Thomson, Laing, McKee, 2007). To get a child to participate in the decision stage of buying, knowledge is a great source as it points out the cleverness or experiences that the children have when a purchase is carried out by a family (Thomson, Laing, McKee, 2007). Inf ormation is also important as it shows whether the child knows about the products in question or not. Knowledge and Information is a significant role in justifying the childs choice of products and is the main factor on how they influence on the buying stage. Parents can decide whether the childs reasons are enough to buy the product in question through their knowledge and information. Studies show that lots of parents encourage the use of knowledge and information and are foreseen characteristic of some family decision making (Thomson, Laing, McKee, 2007). How do coalitions affect adolescents decision on purchasing? Coalition behaviour involves at least two members of a family to get together to form an alliance to influence the end decision of a purchase within a family. This process is often termed majority rule (Pearson, 1989). Majority rule may have a bigger impact than just the childs influence; therefore a child may form a coalition with another family member to make their influence have more of an impact on the final decision of the purchase. However, there have been authors that convey this as lousy behaviour. (Sheth, 1974) and (Belch et al. 1980) felt that coalition would be few and far in between. Coalitions can come in different forms: Mother and child, Father and child or if there is more than one child, siblings could get together. This can benefit the child as one parent might be easily persuaded into giving the child what they want and more understanding of the childs needs. It was distinguished that a significant number of coalitions occurred between mothers and daughters than mo thers and sons concluding that when the same-sex members of a family unite to influence a decision on a product that they have more power than what different-sex members would (Beatty Talpade 1994). This would suggest that daughters had more chance of having a stronger influence in the family household compared to sons when they both wanted to convince their mother of purchasing a product. Family Triads Should the child have an input? Before buying products for any family, there is a decision making process that they must think about in order to come to a concluding decision on what to purchase if they have children. This involves three stages of decision making; gathering information, negotiating within the family and the overall decision on what to buy. Family triads are found to disagree in their perceptions of adolescent influence on both a wide selection of products and general influence in family decision processes. Mothers, fathers and children all, however agree that children have some influence in purchase decisions for a variety of products. Previous research has put forward the fact that two family members can disagree in evaluating purchase decision influence (Burns Hopper 1985). Each member of the family triad had different opinions on how much power the child actually has when deciding on purchasing a product in studies shown in the Journal of Consumer Research. Out of 161 families from North Wester n Towns, The children themselves agreed that they have influence when shopping with parents, suggesting stores, brands and products, paying attention to new products and learning the best buy. Mothers and Fathers also agreed to some extent that the child had general influence on these factors when buying products. However, suggesting the price was one of the factors that all three members of the family agreed that the child does not have influence on the price of products (Foxman, Tansuhaj, Ekstrom, 1989). This concludes that not only does the children themselves think they have influence throughout the decision making process on products but the other members of the family also agree that children should have their say. Overall, family members regarding adolescent purchase decision influence came to the conclusion that: Families that agreed on the same level of childrens influence had older fathers, a concept-oriented family communication style, less children, and a mother who was a housewife. This would suggest that a family triad let their child have more influence than a family with more children would. Other family types does the child have more power in a single-parent family? There are different types of families where a child can influence on family decision making when buying products. Family triads are one but there are also single-parent and step families. Intact families can also have more than one child meaning there are more children to have an influence on the decision making. There has been a growth in rapid social change over the years where parents are divorcing, children are living with only one of their parents or living with people that are from another family due to one of the parents falling in love with someone else. The more a family has differences, the more likely they will have to face difficulties when making important decisions as consumers (cf. Rindfleisch, Burroughs, and Denton 1997). Children gain their knowledge and information through events such as going to school, eating out and technology. However, their family members are one of the most important sources a child could possibly have through their period of consumer learning (Moschis and Churchill 1978; Moschis and Moore 1979; Ward 174). This contributes to the fact that children grow up surrounded by their family; therefore they learn from their mothers, fathers or an older sibling. Depending on what family type the child belongs to, there will be a different level of how much influence they have. Studies (Darley and Lim 1986) show that children in single-parent families had greater influence in a family outing decision than did children in dual-parent families, but did not ascertain between intact and step-families. If a child has to convince two parents, it may be difficult as they will both have different opinions on products or will have the same opinion which will overrule the child, therefore a childs influence in a single-parent household will be much stronger as there are less people to convince and the bond between the child and parent will be stronger as they have went through certain circumstances to end up on their own. Two parents can joi n forces to back up each other when they dont agree with the childs influence when purchasing a product (Mangleburg, Grewal, Bristol, 1999). This will make the childrens influence weaker compared to the single-parent household which appears to be much stronger. A single-parent household is seen as the family type to let the child have a stronger influence on decision making when purchasing products as the child only has one parent to do their parental duties which means the parent will have weaknesses in parental control and find it difficult to be the boss all the time meaning the child will have more independence and equal rights to influence to balance out the family (Dornbusch et al. 1985; Hetherington 1988; Thomson, McLanahan, and Curtin 1992). Family type does have an impact on adolescents influence on decision making and specifically, children in single-parent families had greater influence in both types of decisions as compared with children in step families and intact fami lies (Mangleburg, Grewal, Bristol, 1999). Products children have more influence on Junk foods, toys, kids clothes and accessories for school are a few of the main products that children have been known to have a strong influence on (Mangleburg T. F., 1990). This information suggests that children have more power over products and services that they will be experiencing themselves as children tend to have more of an influence in product sections that are most significant to the children themselves (Beatty and Talpade, 1994). Contrasting, children dont have much of an influence on decision making for products that are expensive and not used only by the child (Foxman et al.,1989a, 1989b). Expensive items such as cars, TVs and furniture are not influenced as much by children as these as more expensive buys. The adults of the household feel they have more influence on bigger products that will affect the whole of the family. Studies from the Journal of Consumer Research (Foxman, Tansuhaj, Ekstrom, 1989) back this up as out of 161 families from North Western Towns, Both the parents and children feel that the parents should have more say overall on products such as Home computers, cars, furniture and cable TV. It appears that children do have a strong influence when it comes to decision making in the family based on purchasing products. However, the childs influence on certain products is weaker than the parents due to the price and who uses the product. Although some research has found next to nothing child influence for bigger, family buys, others have found higher levels of influence than was foreseen by earlier research ( Foxman Tansuhaj 1988; Lee and Beatty 2002). Family holidays and events that see the family come together to have fun are other purchase decisions that children can play a part in influencing (Mangleburg T. F., 1990). These products are seen as expensive and a treat for all the family, this shows that some authors may find that children dont have much influence on expensive products whereas others will find children do have in fluence on products more expensive than clothes and food. Grocery shopping within different families It has been proven that children have more influence on food shopping than expensive buys in the last section of this review. It has also been proven that children have different levels of influence in different family types whether it is a single-parent or dual-parent family. Studies show even though children have a strong influence on purchasing food, the level of influence differs depending on what family the child belongs to. Children in single-parent families are more likely to take part in family tasks, such as going shopping than other children do in bigger families with their parents relationship still intact. (Weiss 1979; Taylor, Glynn, and Taylor 1985; Peters 1985). This would suggest that the child in the single-parent family will participate more in influencing what is bought for the grocery shop compared to the dual-parent family where there are more people to influence what is bought. Summary and conclusion Adolescents influence the decision making process in the family when purchasing products. However, there are different levels of influence and this depends on what family type the child belongs to as this has an effect on how the parents relationship with the child helps or hinders on how much influence the child has when the decision making process is being done when buying new products differing from groceries, clothes and holidays. The review helped come to the conclusion that the most important behaviour for a child when they influence decision making is the use of knowledge and information. Knowledge and Information is a significant role in justifying the childs choice of products and is the main factor on how they influence on the buying stage. It has been discovered that a childs influence solely on their own against both parents can sometimes be overruled by the parents. This is when the child forms a coalition to get more support to gain a stronger influence on the decision making process It was distinguished that a significant number of coalitions occurred between mothers and daughters than mothers and sons concluding that when the same-sex members of a family unite to influence a decision on a product that they have more power than what different-sex members would (Beatty Talpade 1994). This review suggested that different family types determined the level of influence the child had, this included single-parent families, triad families and step families. However, mothers, fathers and children all agreed that children play a part in influencing a number of products in purchase decisions (Foxman, Tansuhaj, Ekstrom, 1989). Products that children have more influence on were also researched. Findings suggest that products that are actually used by the child themselves and not expensive were found to be the products children had more influence on whereas children have been found to have less influence on decisions making for products that are more expens ive and are not just used by the child themselves (Foxman et al.,1989a, 1989b). Grocery shopping is another group of products that children have influence on and the level of influence depends on what family type they belong to. It was found that children belonging to the single-parent family have more influence than children in a dual-parent family. Overall there are different levels of influence a child has when the family are making decisions and it all depends on family types, children behaviour and the products in question.